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c. 3300 – 1300 BCE (Mature: 2600 – 1900 BCE) · Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra River System
Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra River System
Pakistan (Sindh, Punjab, Balochistan, KP), Northwest India, Eastern Afghanistan
Indus Script (undeciphered, pictographic/logo-syllabic, written right-to-left)
Mohenjo-Daro (Sindh), Harappa (Punjab), Mehrgarh (Balochistan - precursor)
The Indus Valley Civilization, also called the Harappan Civilization after Harappa (excavated by Daya Ram Sahni in 1921), flourished in the fertile basin of the Indus River. Sir John Marshall formally announced its discovery to the world in 1924, placing South Asia alongside Egypt and Mesopotamia as one of the cradles of ancient urban civilization.
The civilization was remarkably uniform and sprawling, covering an area greater than ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia combined (nearly 1.25 million square kilometers). The earlier site of Mehrgarh in Balochistan (c. 7000 BCE) proves that agriculture and pastoralism developed indigenously in the region long before the mature urban phase.
A defining feature was the lack of palaces, monumental royal tombs, or standing armies, indicating a society organized around municipal governance, civic sanitation, merchant guilds, and agricultural surplus rather than authoritarian monarchies.
The Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro
Waterproofed public bathing tank made with gypsum mortar and natural bitumen (tar)
The Great Granary at Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa
Raised podium structures with air ducts to preserve grain surplus
Citadel and Lower Town
Dual-level settlement division separating administrative/civic centers from residential quarters
Dholavira Water Reservoirs
Advanced series of stepped rock-cut water storage systems and storm-water harvesting channels
The civilization declined around 1900–1300 BCE, attributed primarily to climatic aridification, tectonic drying of the Ghaggar-Hakra river system, and shifting monsoon rainfall patterns, leading to rural dispersion rather than a single sudden violent destruction.
Frequently tested examiner questions, excavation dates, discoverers, and key historical points:
Practice questions on Indus Valley Civilization (Harappan)
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