Policy implementation and the role of bureaucracy

Introduction

Jeffrey Pressman and Aaron Wildavsky's study 'Implementation' (1973), about a federal programme in Oakland, California, showed how a well-funded policy failed because it needed agreement at dozens of decision points. Implementation is where policies meet reality.

Approaches to implementation

• Top-down: policy is made at the top and implemented through a chain of command; success depends on clear goals, resources and control.
• Bottom-up (Michael Lipsky, 'Street-Level Bureaucracy', 1980): teachers, police officers, health workers and clerks who deal with citizens effectively make policy through their daily decisions.
• Synthesis: Hill and Hupe and others combine both views, emphasizing multi-level governance.

Role of bureaucracy

• Translating policies into rules, procedures and programmes.
• Allocating resources and staff.
• Delivering services to citizens.
• Monitoring and reporting progress.
• Advising policy-makers on practical problems.

Problems and remedies

• Training: officers often lack specialized and management skills; remedy: continuous, practical training and specialist cadres.
• Pervasive inertia: resistance to change and attachment to routines; remedy: leadership, incentives for innovation, and change management.
• Lack of decision-making: fear of accountability agencies and audits makes officers avoid decisions; remedy: protect good-faith decisions and clarify rules.
• Culture of postponement and delays: files move slowly through many levels; remedy: delegation, deadlines, e-office and fewer approval layers.
• Lack of resources: funds released late or not at all; remedy: realistic budgeting and timely releases.
• Political interference: transfers, recruitment and contracts influenced by politicians; remedy: tenure protection and merit-based systems.
• Ability to say 'No': officers must refuse illegal or improper orders, as the Supreme Court emphasized in the Anita Turab case (2013); remedy: legal protection and ethical leadership.

Other causes of implementation failure

• Unclear or conflicting goals.
• Poor coordination among departments and levels of government.
• Lack of data and monitoring.
• Resistance from groups who lose from the policy.

Conclusion

Policy success depends as much on implementation as on design. An empowered, trained, protected and accountable bureaucracy is the key to turning policies into results.