Public policy is what governments choose to do or not to do. It is made through a cycle of stages: diagnosis of the problem and agenda setting, formulation, adoption, implementation, evaluation, and revision or termination.
Introduction
Policies shape every aspect of life, from taxes and education to health and security. The policy cycle, or 'stages model', simplifies the complex process of policy-making into steps. In reality the stages overlap, but the model helps analyse where policies succeed or fail.
Definitions
- Thomas Dye: public policy is 'whatever governments choose to do or not to do'.
- James Anderson: public policy is 'a purposive course of action followed by an actor or set of actors in dealing with a problem or matter of concern'.
- William Jenkins: a set of interrelated decisions concerning the selection of goals and the means of achieving them.
Stage 1: Problem diagnosis and agenda setting
Identifying and defining the problem, and getting it onto the government's agenda.
- Activities: data collection, research, consultation, framing the problem.
- Caution: diagnose the root cause, not the symptoms; a wrongly defined problem leads to the wrong policy.
- Caution: avoid letting only powerful groups or media headlines set the agenda.
Stage 2: Policy formulation
Developing alternative solutions and choosing among them.
- Activities: analysing options, costs, benefits and risks; consultation with experts and stakeholders.
- Caution: consider several options, including doing nothing; check feasibility and financing.
- Caution: involve implementers early, so the policy can actually be carried out.
Stage 3: Policy adoption (legitimation)
Formal approval by the Cabinet, legislature or other authority.
- Activities: drafting laws or rules, approval by the Cabinet or Parliament, budget allocation.
- Caution: build consensus and political support; ensure legal clarity and constitutional compliance.
- Caution: allocate funds; unfunded policies remain on paper.
Stage 4: Policy implementation
Putting the policy into practice through organizations, staff and resources.
- Activities: issuing rules, assigning responsibility, training staff, delivering services.
- Caution: clear responsibilities, adequate resources and coordination among agencies.
- Caution: monitor from the start and adjust to local conditions.
Stage 5: Policy evaluation
Assessing whether the policy achieved its goals and at what cost.
- Activities: monitoring indicators, impact studies, audits and feedback.
- Caution: use independent, objective evaluation and baseline data; avoid evaluating only outputs instead of outcomes.
Stage 6: Revision, continuation or termination
Based on evaluation, the policy is continued, modified or ended.
- Caution: learn from failure rather than hide it; terminate ineffective policies despite vested interests.
- Caution: ensure continuity of successful policies when governments change.
Other models of policy-making
- Rational-comprehensive model: identify all options and choose the best; criticized as unrealistic.
- Incrementalism (Charles Lindblom, 'The Science of Muddling Through', 1959): policies change in small steps from existing ones.
- Bounded rationality (Herbert Simon): decision-makers 'satisfice' with limited information.
- Multiple streams (John Kingdon, 1984): policy changes when problem, policy and political streams come together, opening a 'policy window'.
- Garbage can model (Cohen, March and Olsen, 1972): decisions emerge from a chaotic mix of problems, solutions and participants.
Policy-making in Pakistan
In Pakistan, policies are often made in response to crises, donor conditions or political announcements, with limited research, consultation or costing. Many good policies on paper fail in implementation. Strengthening each stage of the cycle, especially diagnosis, consultation and evaluation, would improve results.
Conclusion
The policy cycle is a useful guide for making better policies. Careful attention at each stage, with the right cautions, reduces the risk of policy failure.