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World & History
Pantheism, rationalism, Ethics
Spinoza argued there is only one substance in the universe — which can be called either God or Nature — and that everything that exists is simply a mode or expression of it, making God and the natural world identical rather than separate. He believed this single, rationally necessary structure of reality could be demonstrated with the certainty of geometry, leaving no room for free will or a personal, judging God.
Dutch philosopher of Portuguese-Jewish descent, excommunicated from his community at 23 for his unorthodox religious views, who lived quietly grinding lenses while writing some of philosophy's most radical works.